Availability of Data and Material
The supplementary material for this article can be found online or obtained from the corresponding author upon reasonable request.
https://doi.org/10.23668/psycharchives.7291.
https://doi.org/10.23668/psycharchives.7290.
https://doi.org/10.23668/psycharchives.7292.
Conflicts of Interest
The authors have no potential conflicts of interest to disclose.
Author Contributions
Conceptualization: Ayesha Nida, Arsalan Haider. Data curation: all authors. Formal analysis: Ayesha Nida, Arsalan Haider. Funding acquisition: Xiang-Yang Zhang. Investigation: Ayesha Nida, Arsalan Haider. Methodology: Ayesha Nida, Arsalan Haider. Resources: Arsalan Haider, Xiang- Yang Zhang. Software: Ayesha Nida, Arsalan Haider. Supervision: Xiang- Yang Zhang. Validation: Arsalan Haider, Xiang-Yang Zhang. Writing—original draft: Ayesha Nida, Arsalan Haider. Writing—review & editing: Arsalan Haider, Xiang-Yang Zhang.
Funding Statement
None
Characteristic | Total (N=338) | Occasionally drug craving (N=149) | Non-drug craving (N=189) | df | H or χ2 | p | Eta |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Age | 2 | 47.21 | 0.001***† | 0.374 | |||
14–16 yr | 47 (13.9) | 5 | 42 | ||||
17–19 yr | 192 (56.8) | 76 | 116 | ||||
20–22 yr | 99 (29.9) | 68 | 31 | ||||
Gender | 1 | 24.12 | 0.001***† | 0.267 | |||
Male | 237 (70.1) | 125 | 112 | ||||
Female | 101 (29.9) | 24 | 77 | ||||
Education levels | 2 | 41.13 | 0.001***† | 0.349 | |||
Metric | 8 (2.4) | 2 | 6 | ||||
Intermediate | 189 (55.9) | 56 | 133 | ||||
Graduation | 141 (41.7) | 91 | 50 | ||||
Socioeconomic status | 2 | 12.49 | 0.002**† | 0.192 | |||
Lower | 30 (8.9) | 2 | 6 | ||||
Middle | 285 (84.3) | 56 | 133 | ||||
High | 23 (6.8) | 91 | 50 | ||||
Family system | 1 | 0.96 | 0.330† | 0.053 | |||
Nuclear | 245 (72.5) | 104 | 141 | ||||
Joint | 93 (27.5) | 45 | 48 | ||||
Type of occasional drug carving | 5 | 321.97 | <0.001***† | 0.976 | |||
Tobacco | 135 (39.9) | 133 | 2 | ||||
LSD | 1 (0.3) | 1 | 0 | ||||
Heroine | 6 (1.8) | 6 | 0 | ||||
Ice | 2 (0.6) | 2 | 0 | ||||
Never use | 189 (55.9) | 2 | 187 | ||||
All substance tried | 5 (1.5) | 5 | 0 | ||||
Starting situation of drug carving | 7 | 318.22 | <0.001***† | 0.970 | |||
Friends gathering | 53 (15.7) | 51 | 2 | ||||
Cousins | 3 (0.9) | 3 | 0 | ||||
For pleasure and adventure | 13 (3.8) | 13 | 0 | ||||
Party | 9 (2.7) | 9 | 0 | ||||
Sad | 17 (5.0) | 17 | 0 | ||||
Every situation | 17 (5.0) | 17 | 0 | ||||
Stress | 38 (11.2) | 37 | 1 | ||||
Family drug carving: smoking history | 1 | 15.32 | 0.001***† | 0.213 | |||
Yes | 120 (35.5) | 70 | 50 | ||||
No | 218 (64.5) | 79 | 139 | ||||
Impress from family member | |||||||
Yes | 21 (6.2) | ||||||
No | 317 (93.6) | ||||||
Influenced by group | |||||||
Yes | 35 (10.4) | ||||||
No | 303 (89.6) | ||||||
Father occupation | |||||||
Government employ | 122 (36.1) | ||||||
Private employ | 41 (12.1) | ||||||
Businessman | 81 (24.0) | ||||||
Work abroad | 22 (6.5) | ||||||
Other | 72 (21.3) | ||||||
Mother occupation | |||||||
Government employ | 10 (3.0) | ||||||
Private employ | 9 (2.7) | ||||||
House wife | 312 (92.3) | ||||||
Other | 7 (2.1) | ||||||
Approximate family income | |||||||
10,000–25,000 PKR | 42 (12.4) | ||||||
25,000–40,000 PKR | 81 (24.0) | ||||||
45,000–50,000 PKR | 87 (25.7) | ||||||
>50,000 PKR | 128 (37.9) | ||||||
Carving situation of drugs | NA | 78.04 | 241.6 | 453.5 | 0.001***‡ | NA | |
Type of carving drugs | NA | 83.64 | 237.19 | 1,287.0 | 0.001***‡ | NA | |
Family income | NA | 181.66 | 159.91 | 12,268.0 | 0.033*‡ | NA |
Drug craving | Non-drug-craving (N=189) | Occasional drug craving (N=149) | t (338) | p | Cohen’s d |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
PPQ | -0.483±0.834 | 0.613±0.845 | -11.911 | 0.001*** | 0.839 |
PAQ | -0.343±0.976 | 0.435±0.851 | -7.820 | 0.001*** | 0.923 |
F-PAR | -1.043±1.150 | -0.402±0.862 | -3.643 | 0.001*** | 0.962 |
M-PAR | -0.527±1.223 | -0.217±0.675 | -1.961 | 0.051† | 1.031 |
M-warmth | -0.573±1.157 | -0.600±1.080 | 0.147 | 0.883 | 1.123 |
M-hostile | -0.138±0.691 | -0.409±0.750 | 2.212 | 0.014** | 0.718 |
M-indiffer | -0.399±0.779 | -0.399±0.856 | 0.000 | >0.999 | 0.711 |
M-undiff | -0.682±1.170 | -0.517±1.222 | -0.822 | 0.412 | 1.198 |
F-undiff | 1.812±0.364 | 2.318±0.234 | -15.430 | 0.001*** | 0.314 |
F-indiffer | -0.342±0.648 | -0.301±0.690 | -0.347 | 0.729 | 0.678 |
F-hostile | -0.274±0.652 | -0.337±0.656 | 0.558 | 0.577 | 0.655 |
F-warmth | -0.466±1.139 | -0.654±1.350 | 0.881 | 0.380 | 1.245 |
Family structure | Joint family (N=93) | Nuclear family (N=245) | t (338) | p | Cohen’s d |
PPQ | 0.174±0.878 | -0.066±1.036 | -1.989 | 0.047* | 0.995 |
PAQ | -0.164±0.834 | 0.062±1.050 | 2.076 | 0.039* | 0.996 |
F-PAR | -0.594±1.041 | -0.608±0.988 | -0.091 | 0.928 | 1.007 |
M-PAR | -0.229±1.001 | -0.446±1.058 | -0.811 | 0.419 | 1.040 |
M-warmth | -0.385±1.102 | -0.699±1.119 | -1.654 | 0.100 | 1.113 |
M-hostile | -0.057±0.692 | -0.327±0.730 | -1.919 | 0.057 | 0.721 |
M-indiffer | -0.524±0.690 | 0.336±0.858 | 1.475 | 0.143 | 0.807 |
M-undiff | -0.435±1.146 | -0.683±1.214 | -1.139 | 0.256 | 1.195 |
F-undiff | 2.119±0.340 | 2.004±0.419 | -2.588 | 0.010** | 0.399 |
F-indiffer | -0.291±0.721 | -0.323±0.663 | -0.270 | 0.787 | 0.678 |
F-hostile | -0.119±0.627 | -0.419±0.646 | -2.835 | 0.005** | 0.639 |
F-warmth | -0.638±1.174 | -0.511±1.287 | 0.576 | 0.565 | 1.247 |
Gender | Male (N=237) | Female (N=101) | t (338) | p | Cohen’s d |
PPQ | 0.134±1.021 | -0.315±0.875 | 3.866 | 0.001*** | 0.979 |
PAQ | -0.028±1.020 | 0.066±0.952 | -0.795 | 0.427 | 1.000 |
F-PAR | -0.507±0.912 | -1.041±1.274 | 2.211 | 0.033* | 0.986 |
M-PAR | -0.275±0.874 | -0.707±1.333 | 1.944 | 0.057 | 1.023 |
M-warmth | -0.643±1.156 | -0.397±0.978 | -1.142 | 0.255 | 1.118 |
M-hostile | -0.214±0.743 | -0.378±0.681 | 1.182 | 0.239 | 0.727 |
M-indiffer | -0.355±0.843 | -0.468±0.753 | 0.849 | 0.397 | 0.810 |
M-undiff | -0.495±1.245 | -0.907±1.022 | 1.903 | 0.059 | 1.186 |
F-undiff | 2.115±0.377 | 1.849±0.397 | 5.835 | 0.001*** | 0.383 |
F-indiffer | -0.256±0.661 | -0.524±0.700 | 2.069 | 0.040* | 0.696 |
F-hostile | -0.257±0.634 | -0.697±0.654 | 3.074 | 0.002** | 0.637 |
F-warmth | -0.691±1.285 | -0.225±1.081 | -2.017 | 0.046* | 1.231 |
PPQ, Peer Pressure Questionnaire; PAQ, Personality Assessment Questionnaire; F-PAR, Parental Acceptance Rejection Father Questionnaire; M-PAR, Parental Acceptance Rejection Mother Questionnaire; M-warmtn, mother warmth/affection; M-hostile, mother hostility/aggresson; M-indiffer, mother indifferent/neglect; M-undiff, mother undifferentiated rejection; F-undiff, father undifferentiated rejection; F-indiffer, father indifferent/neglect; F-hostile, father hostility/aggresson; F-warmth, father warmth/affection
SES | Lower class (1) (N=30) | Middle class (2) (N=285) | High class (3) (N=23) | F (2,335) | ή2 | Post-Hoc |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
PARQF | 51.001±8.782 | 45.160±11.273 | 51.394±7.830 | 0.837 | 0.010 | 3>1>2 |
PARQM | 45.370±8.013 | 39.691±10.654 | 36.222±7.422 | 0.416 | 0.006 | 1>2>3 |
PPQ | 73.600±12.524 | 69.222±16.822 | 74.261±12.355 | 1.850 | 0.011 | 3>1>2 |
A-PAQ | 113.401±9.170 | 111.760±8.070 | 115.300±5.623 | 2.461 | 0.015 | 3>1>2 |
M-warmth | -0.668±1.127 | -0.586±1.143 | -0.303±0.664 | 0.285 | 0.004 | 1>2>3 |
M-hostile | -0.082±0.604 | -0.243±0.726 | -1.371±0.000 | 7.033** | 0.094 | 3>2>1 |
M-indiffer | -0.529±0.839 | -0.327±0.792 | -1.059±0.696 | 2.874** | 0.056 | 3>1>2 |
M-undiff | -0.595±1.256 | -0.621±1.189 | -0.311±1.705 | 0.144 | 0.001 | 2>1>3 |
F-undiff | 2.189±0.283 | 2.020±0.407 | 2.026±0.436 | 0.388 | 0.014 | 1>3>2 |
F-indiffer | -0.374±0.831 | -0.283±0.641 | -0.471±0.729 | 0.285 | 0.008 | 3>1>2 |
F-hostile | -0.212±0.715 | -0.346±0.654 | -0.212±0.595 | 0.243 | 0.007 | 2>3=1 |
F-warmth | -0.509±1.305 | -0.596±1.232 | -0.219±1.364 | 0.787 | 0.007 | 2>1>3 |
Age | 14–16 yr (1) (N=47) | 17–19 yr (2) (N=192) | 20–22 yr (3) (N=99) | F (2,335) | ή2 | Post-Hoc |
PARQF | 40.791±10.540 | 45.050±10.990 | 50.695±9.831 | 0.143 | 0.013 | 3>2>1 |
PARQM | 40.533±11.011 | 39.600±9.842 | 40.370±11.233 | 2.357 | 0.031 | 1>3>2 |
PPQ | 61.010±13.554 | 68.644±16.132 | 76.741±15.132 | 17.950*** | 0.097 | 3>2>1 |
PAQ | 109.282±9.300 | 112.353±6.940 | 113.350±8.071 | 4.160** | 0.024 | 3>2>1 |
M-warmth | -1.000±1.140 | -0.653±1.109 | -0.321±1.097 | 3.091 | 0.033 | 3>1>2 |
M-hostile | -0.095±0.719 | -0.347±0.710 | -0.187±0.759 | 0.697 | 0.019 | 3>2>1 |
M-indiffer | -0.371±0.843 | -0.401±0.807 | -0.411±0.812 | 0.013 | 0.000 | 3>2>1 |
M-undiff | -0.187±0.981 | -0.776±1.221 | -0.551±1.220 | 3.305 | 0.032 | 2>1>3 |
F-undiff | 1.869±0.407 | 2.023±0.381 | 2.138±0.411 | 1.181*** | 0.043 | 3>2>1 |
F-indiffer | -0.156±0.565 | -0.305±0.674 | -0.359±0.706 | 0.227 | 0.006 | 3>2>1 |
F-hostile | -0.373±0.643 | -0.339±0.645 | -0.280±0.673 | 0.087 | 0.003 | 1>2>3 |
F-warmth | -0.652±1.424 | -0.729±1.246 | -0.729±1.246 | 3.099 | 0.029 | 3=2>1 |
PARQF, Parental Acceptance-Rejection Questionnaire Father-Form; PARQM, Parental Acceptance-Rejection Questionnaire Mother-Form; PPQ, Peer Pressure Questionnanire; PAQ, Adult Personality Assessment Questionnaire; M-warmth, mother warmth/affection; M-hostile, mother hostility/aggresson; M-indiffer, mother indifferent/neglect; M-undiff, mother undifferentiated rejection, F-warmth, father warmth/affection; F-hostile, father hostility/aggresson; F-indiffer, father indifferent/neglect; F-undiff, father undifferentiated rejection
B | SE | Wald | df | p | OR | 95% CI | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Step 1‡ | |||||||
Age | 2.681 | 2 | 0.262 | ||||
Age (1) | 0.863 | 0.952 | 0.822 | 1 | 0.365 | 2.370 | 0.367–15.319 |
Age (2) | 1.621 | 1.057 | 2.352 | 1 | 0.125 | 5.056 | 0.637–40.105 |
Gender (1) | 0.263 | 0.621 | 0.180 | 1 | 0.671 | 1.301 | 0.386–4.392 |
SES | 3.798 | 2 | 0.150 | ||||
SES (1) | -1.305 | 0.696 | 3.514 | 1 | 0.061 | 0.271 | 0.069–1.061 |
SES (2) | -0.832 | 0.991 | 0.704 | 1 | 0.402 | 0.435 | 0.062–3.038 |
Education | 2.333 | 2 | 0.311 | ||||
Education (1) | 0.170 | 1.944 | 0.008 | 1 | 0.930 | 1.185 | 0.026–53.565 |
Education (2) | 0.995 | 2.004 | 0.246 | 1 | 0.620 | 2.704 | 0.053–137.450 |
F_warmth | -0.651 | 0.292 | 4.961 | 1 | 0.026* | 0.521 | 0.294–0.925 |
F_hostility | 0.927 | 0.333 | 7.734 | 1 | 0.005** | 2.526 | 1.315–4.853 |
F_indifferent | 0.834 | 0.334 | 6.222 | 1 | 0.013** | 2.303 | 1.196–4.436 |
F_undiff_reject | 1.904 | 0.369 | 26.688 | 1 | <0.001*** | 6.715 | 3.260–13.830 |
M_undiff_reject | -0.202 | 0.310 | 0.422 | 1 | 0.516 | 0.817 | 0.445–1.502 |
M_indifferent | -0.378 | 0.289 | 1.713 | 1 | 0.191 | 0.685 | 0.389–1.207 |
M_hostilitiy | -1.386 | 0.375 | 13.692 | 1 | <0.001*** | 0.250 | 0.120–0.521 |
M_warmth | 0.290 | 0.227 | 1.629 | 1 | 0.202 | 1.337 | 0.856–2.086 |
PPQ | 1.712 | 0.334 | 26.296 | 1 | <0.001*** | 5.543 | 2.880–10.665 |
APAQ | 0.104 | 0.034 | 9.030 | 1 | 0.003** | 1.109 | 1.037–1.187 |
Constant | -12.977 | 4.429 | 8.584 | 1 | 0.003** | 0.000 | NA |
Step 2§ | |||||||
Age | 4.452 | 2 | 0.108 | ||||
Age (1) | 0.993 | 0.899 | 1.222 | 1 | 0.269 | 2.700 | 0.464–15.713 |
Age (2) | 1.965 | 1.007 | 3.809 | 1 | 0.051† | 7.136 | 0.992–51.348 |
Gender (1) | 0.029 | 0.583 | 0.003 | 1 | 0.960 | 1.030 | 0.328–3.230 |
SES | 5.706 | 2 | 0.058 | ||||
SES (1) | -1.557 | 0.668 | 5.436 | 1 | 0.020* | 0.211 | 0.057–0.780 |
SES (2) | -1.060 | 0.953 | 1.236 | 1 | 0.266 | 0.347 | 0.054–2.243 |
Education | 3.134 | 2 | 0.209 | ||||
Education (1) | 0.174 | 2.080 | 0.007 | 1 | 0.933 | 1.190 | 0.020–70.215 |
Education (2) | 1.093 | 2.125 | 0.264 | 1 | 0.607 | 2.983 | 0.046–192.133 |
F_warmth | -0.563 | 0.282 | 3.988 | 1 | 0.046* | 0.570 | 0.328–0.990 |
F_hostility | 0.916 | 0.316 | 8.393 | 1 | 0.004** | 2.500 | 1.345–4.646 |
F_indifferent | 0.655 | 0.316 | 4.300 | 1 | 0.038* | 1.925 | 1.037–3.575 |
F_undiff_reject | 1.825 | 0.349 | 27.409 | 1 | <0.001*** | 6.201 | 3.132–12.279 |
M_hostility | -1.643 | 0.309 | 28.364 | 1 | <0.001*** | 0.193 | 0.106–0.354 |
PPQ | 1.664 | 0.321 | 26.897 | 1 | <0.001*** | 5.278 | 2.815–9.898 |
APAQ | 0.102 | 0.033 | 9.851 | 1 | 0.002** | 1.108 | 1.039–1.181 |
Constant | -12.762 | 4.269 | 8.935 | 1 | 0.003** | 0.000 | NA |
SES, socioeconomic status; F_warmth, father warmth/affection; F_hostility, father hostility/aggresson; F_indifferent, father indifferent/neglect; F_undiff_reject, father undifferentiated rejection; M_undiff_reject, mother undifferentiated rejection; M_indifferent, mother indifferent/neglect; M_hostilitiy, mother hostility/aggresson; M_warmth, mother warmth/affection; PPQ, Peer Pressure Questionnanire; APAQ, Adult Personality Assessment Questionnaire; SE, standard error; OR, odds ratio; CI, confidence interval; NA, not applicable