Availability of Data and Material
The datasets generated or analyzed during the study are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request.
Conflicts of Interest
Sung-Wan Kim and Euitae Kim, a contributing editor of the Psychiatry Investigation, was not involved in the editorial evaluation or decision to publish this article. All remaining authors have declared no conflicts of interest.
Author Contributions
Conceptualization: Young-Chul Chung. Data curation: Yan-Hong Piao, Bong-Ju Lee, Sung-Wan Kim, Jung-Jin Kim. Formal analysis: Je-Chun Yu, Kyu-Young Lee, Seung-Hwan Lee. Funding acquisition: Young-Chul Chung, Seung-Hee Won. Investigation: Seung-Hyun Kim, Eui-Tae Kim. Methodology: Bong-Ju Lee, Clara Tammy Kim. Project administration: Young-Chul Chung. Resources: Shi-Hyun Kang. Software: Fatima Zahra Rami. Supervision: Young-Chul Chung. Validation: Paolo Fusar-Poli. Visualization: Dominic Oliver. Writing—original draft: Young-Chul Chung, Eun Jin Jeon. Writing—review & editing: Young-Chul Chung, Eun Jin Jeon.
Funding Statement
This study was supported by grants from the Korean Mental Health Technology R&D Project, Ministry of Health and Welfare, Republic of Korea (HL19C0015), and the Korea Health Technology R&D Project through the Korea Health Industry Development Institute (KHIDI), funded by the Ministry of Health and Welfare, Republic of Korea (HI18C2383).
Risk factor |
Cut-off |
OR | log10 (OR) |
Population proportion (%) |
Prevalence |
Population average |
PPS |
K-PERS-I |
||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Foreign | Korea | Foreign | Korea | Foreign | Korea | Foreign | Korea | Exposed | Nonexposed | Exposed | Nonexposed | |||
Paternal age at birth | >35 | >35 | 1.28 [50] | 0.107 | 80.00 [50] | 44.22 [51] | 0.8 | 0.442 | 0.086 | 0.047 | 0 | -1 | 0.5 | -0.5 |
Parental SES | Low | Receiving medical aid | 1.3 [17] | 0.114 | 8.4 [52] | 3.02 [53] | 0.084 | 0.030 | 0.010 | 0.003 | 1 | 0 | 1 | 0 |
Urbanicity | Population density >50,000 | Living in city | 2.19 [54,57] | 0.340 | 73.60 [55] | 92.87 [56] | 0.736 | 0.929 | 0.250 | 0.316 | 1 | -2.5 | 0 | -3 |
Childhood trauma | ≥Moderate in the CTQ | ≥Moderate level of any trauma | 2.87 [25] | 0.458 | 11.76 [58] | 0.42 [59,60] | 0.118 | 0.005 | 0.054 | 0.002 | 4 | -0.5 | 4.5 | 0 |
Adult life events | ≥Moderate life events | ≥Moderate level of at least two adverse events | 5.34 [18] | 0.728 | 25 [22] | 25 [22] | 0.25 | 0.25 | 0.182 | 0.182 | 5.5 | -2 | 5.5 | -2 |
Clinical high risk state for psychosis | ≥2 in the APSS | ≥29 in the K-ESI [61] | 9.32 [62] | 0.969 | 13.94 [63,64] | 1.26 [65] | 0.139 | 0.013 | 0.1352 | 0.012 | 8.5 | -1.5 | 10 | 0 |
Premorbid IQ | <93.6 | 0.47 [66,67] | -0.323 | 33.48 [66] | 0.335 | -0.110 | 2 | -1 | ||||||
Olfactory identification ability | Impaired ability | 0.19 [68] | -0.7213 | 24.00 [69] | 0.24 | -0.173 | 5.5 | -1.5 | ||||||
Non-right handedness | Non-right handedness | 1.58 [70] | 0.199 | 5.90 [71] | 0.059 | 0.012 | 2 | 0 | ||||||
Immigration | 1st or 2nd generation immigrant | 2.1 [72] for 1st generation immigrant | 0.322 | 16.80 [73] | 0.168 | 0.054 | • Not immigrant: -0.5 | |||||||
• 1st generation immigrant: from North Africa, 3 and from other regions, 2 | ||||||||||||||
1.68 [72] for 2nd generation immigrant | 0.225 | 9.20 [73] | 0.092 | 0.021 | • 2nd generation immigrant: from North Africa, 2.5 and from other regions, 1.5 | |||||||||
Ethnicity | Ethnicity | 2.83–4.87 [1,74]* | • White: -2 | |||||||||||
• Black Caribbean: in low ethnic density area, 6; in medium ethnic density area, 5.5; in high ethnic density area, 3.5 | ||||||||||||||
• Others: in low ethnic density area, 3,5; in medium ethnic density area, 3; in high ethnic density area, 1 |
Risk factor |
Cut-off |
RR from meta-analysis | log(RRj) |
Population proportion (%) |
Σ(log(RRj)*pj) |
ERS | K-PERS-II | |||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Foreign | Korea | Foreign | Korea | Foreign | Korea | |||||
Paternal age at birth | <40 | <25 | 1.06 | 0.025 | 92.1 | 1.688 | 1.02 | 1.09 | 0 | 0 |
25–29 | 1 | 0 | 10.300 | 1.09 | -0.5 | |||||
30–34 | 1.06 | 0.025 | 42.763 | 1.09 | 0 | |||||
35–39 | 1.13 | 0.053 | 32.160 | 1.09 | 0 | |||||
40–50 | 40–44 | 1.22 | 0.086 | 7.1 | 9.900 | 1.02 | 1.09 | 0.5 | 0.5 | |
45–49 | 1.21 | 0.083 | 1.791 | 1.09 | 0.5 | |||||
>50 | ≥50 | 1.66 [75] | 0.220 | 0.8 [75,14] | 0.370 [51] | 1.02 | 0.039 | 2 | 2 | |
Obstetric complications | Birth weight <2.5 kg | 1.67 | 0.223 | 3.6 | 5.744 | 0.008 | 0.012 | 2 | 2 | |
Birth weight ≥2.5 kg | 1 [76] | 0 | 96.4 [76,14] | 94.260 [51] | 0.008 | 0.012 | 0 | 0 | ||
Parental SES (exposed/non exposed) | Father’s income in the lowest quintile | 2.22/1 | 0.346/0 | 21.016/78.984 | 21.016/78.984 [24] | 1.26/1.26 | 1.26/1.26 | 2.5/-1 | 2.5/-1 | |
Mother’s income in the lowest quintile | 1.74/1 | 0.241/0 | 22.836/77.165 | 13.8/86.2 [77] | 1.17/1.17 | 1.10/1.10 | 1.5/-0.5 | 2/-0.5 | ||
Father being unemployed or otherwise outside the labor market | 2.53/1 | 0.403/0 | 14.933/85.067 | 14.933/85.067 [24] | 1.23/1.23 | 1.23/1.23 | 3/-1 | 3/-1 | ||
Mother being unemployed or otherwise outside the labor market | 1.58/1 | 0.199/0 | 25.517/74.484 | 43.5/56.5 [77] | 1.15/1.15 | 1.25/1.25 | 1.5/-0.5 | 1/-1 | ||
Father’s highest educational level less than high school | 1.47/1 | 0.167/0 | 28.368/71.6328 | 1.309/98.691 [51] | 1.13/1.13 | 1.01/1.01 | 1/-0.5 | 1.5/0 | ||
Mother’s highest educational level less than high school | 1.79/1 [23] | 0.253/0 | 47.847/52.153 [23] | 1.675/98.325 [51] | 1.38/1.38 | 1.01/1.01 | 1/-1.5 | 2.5/0 | ||
Urbanicity | Population density by three equal tertiles | County | 1.156 | 0.063 | 33.3 | 7.135 | 1.59 | 1.75 | -1.5 | -2 |
City | 1.546 | 0.189 | 33.3 | 48.404 | 1.59 | 1.75 | 0 | -0.5 | ||
Metropolitan city | 2.067 | 0.315 | 33.3 | 44.461 [56] | 1.59 | 1.75 | 1.5 | 0.5 | ||
Childhood adversity | Exposed/Non exposed (≥moderate level of any trauma) | 2.78/1 [25] | 0.444/0 | 27/73 | 1.48/1.48 | 2.5/-15 | ||||
Neglect | 2.9/1 | 0.462/0 | 0.033/99.967 | 0.001/0.001 | 4.5/0 | |||||
Emotional abuse | 3.4/1 | 0.531/0 | 0.056/99.944 | 0.001/0.001 | 5.5/0 | |||||
Physical abuse | 2.95/1 | 0.470/0 | 0.039/99.961 | 0.001/0.001 | 4.5/0 | |||||
Sexual abuse (≥moderate level of each trauma) | 2.38/1 [25] | 0.377/0 | 0.008/99.991 [59,60] | 0.001/0.001 | 4/0 | |||||
Recent life events | Exposed/non exposed (≥moderate life events) | Exposed/non exposed (≥moderate level of at least two adverse events) | 3.19/1 [18] | 0.504/0 | 25/75 [22] | 25/75 [21] | 1.55/1.55 | 1.55/1.55 | 3/-2 | 3/-2 |
Cannabis use | No exposure | 1 | 0 | 70 | 0.089 | -1 | ||||
Little to moderate exposure | 1.405 | 0.148 | 15 | 0.089 | 0.5 | |||||
High exposure | 2.775 [78] | 0.443 | 15 [79] | 0.089 | 3.5 | |||||
Ethnic minority status | Native | 1 | 0 | 92.4 | 0.053 | 0.5 | ||||
Any origin | 2.3 | 0.362 | 7.6 | 0.053 | 3 | |||||
Black | 4 | 0.602 | 1.3 | 0.053 | 6 | |||||
White | 1.8 | 0.255 | 2.8 | 0.053 | 2 | |||||
Other | 2 [72] | 0.301 | 3.5 [14,72] | 0.053 | 2.5 |