INTRODUCTION
Adolescence and young adulthood are critical emotional, behavioural, and cognitive stages marked by challenges and growth. Environmental factors and individual coping skills heavily influence these phases. Adverse experiences during this period may increase the risk of psychological distress in terms of depression, anxiety, and stress, while positive experiences can promote goal achievement and personal fulfilment [1]. Healthy family relationships contribute to physical and mental health, competence, and mastery, fostering values and mutual respect [2-5]. Supportive parenting practice, characterized by effective dialogue, facilitates social-emotional development and academic accomplishment and is consistently associated with favourable results [4,6,7].
Family quality of life (FQoL) is the perceived well-being within the family context and its capacity to satisfy personal and societal goals [1,8,9]. During these developmental stages, FQoL may influence goal achievement, including goal achievement mastery (GA-M) and performance-oriented goals: goal achievement performance (GA-P) [10]. Determinants like internal motivation, parental acceptance, family climate, and disciplinary rules are crucial in molding individuals’ goal-setting skills [11,12]. FQoL consists of five key areas: family interaction (FiC), parenting (Par), emotional well-being (EWB), physical/material well-being (PMW), and disability-related support (DRS), all crucial for mental health consequences, including depression and anxiety. Constructive family approaches are linked with long-term beneficial implications, while dysfunctional family communication often promotes adverse outcomes that can undermine internal motivation [6,7,13]. The transactional model reveals a negative relationship between self-esteem, favorable parenting, and problem-solving coping skills [14]. Studies indicated that children with supportive parents generally show more robust self-regulation and higher goal achievement than those exposed to less supportive parenting [15]. Within FQoL, supportive parents foster autonomy, which positively correlates with GA-M, while controlling parents promote GA-P [16]. Alternatively, family-based risk factors have been associated with adverse outcomes, such as unstable family ties [17,18] and dysfunctional communication [6]. Although numerous studies have examined the relationship between family dynamics and goal achievement, they remain limited.
Goals are conceptualized as mental depiction of desired consequences that drive motivation [19,20]. They are broadly divided into two orientations: 1) master goal orientation (GA-M) focuses on mastery tasks, competence development and acquiring knowledge and fostering internal motivation and 2) whereas performance goal achievement (GA-P) focuses on gaining recognition, motivation to demonstration competence by external validation. Goal attainment, as outlined by Goal Achievement Theory, involves a complex interplay between individual goal orientation and the motivational environment fostered by social agents, such as parents and peers [21]. This theory differentiates GA-M from GA-P [22]. Studies show that parental support positively correlates with academic achievement, and caring family relationships promote autonomy and goal mastery, equipping young adults to pursue goals, particularly in academic contexts. In contrast, distorted family environments hinder GA-M and increase the probability of depression and stress, especially when educational goals are unachieved [23]. Ambitious family goals are often associated with increased academic stress [24], while a lack of family support contributes to stress, depression, and lower FQoL, highlighting the importance of family-focused interventions.
Depression is a multifaceted condition that adversely affects individuals’ emotional states, frequently resulting in guilt, loss of hope, dysfunctional sleep, trouble concentrating, reduced motivation, and suicidal ideation, all of which can impair work performance [23,25]. Previous studies have demonstrated a positive association between depression and unfavorable family environments [18]. Adverse effects on emotional regulation, work performance, and future-oriented thinking reduce the overall FQoL and difficulties in goal achievement [23,25]. Depression, anxiety, family support, and individual coping approaches are interconnected [18]; in particular, they hinder future-oriented thinking, thereby hindering individuals’ ability to achieve personal goals, causing dissatisfaction, and lower FQoL. Although goal pursuit may support well-being [26], individuals with severe depressive symptoms may struggle to achieve their goals despite recognizing their importance [27]. Depression and stress impair goal pursuit by reducing motivation and cognition [17,18]. External validation and societal demands can substantially heighten stress when family or societal demands exceed the individual’s capabilities, ultimately diminishing FQoL [16]. Prior studies have found no substantial gender differences in these associations [28].
Given the substantial impact of family dynamics and parenting on adolescents’ psychological well-being and academic performance [24,29], more research is needed to understand how these factors influence goal attainment under psychological distress (Figure 1). There is a lack of existing literature on the role of family dynamics in mediating the connection between psychological distress and goal achievement [26]. Further research is necessary to clarify these mechanisms, which could inform interventions to improve family functioning and foster positive outcomes for adolescents and young adults.
Figure 1 proposed parallel mediation model of FQoL (latent independent variable), psychological distress, and goal achievement. Model fit indices: ratio of chi-square to degrees of freedom (χ2/df), comparative fit index (CFI≥0.95), goodness of fit index (GFI≥0.95), standardized root-mean-square residual (SRMR≤0.05), root-mean-square error of approximation (RMSEA≤0.06), Tucker-Lewis index (TLI≥0.90), Akaike Information Criterion (AIC), Bayesian Information Criterion (BIC), and Adjusted Bayesian Information Criterion (ABIC) lowest values.
METHODS
Participants
This study employed a systematic recruitment approach to ensure data representativeness and reliability. University students aged 16-23 years from the Malakand region were identified through collaboration with departments at the University of Malakand (Sociology, Education, Urdu, English, Management Sciences, and Economics). Eligibility criteria included: 1) enrollment in a Bachelor’s program in one of these departments, 2) living with family, 3) absence of diagnosed mental health conditions, 4) no significant medical conditions, and 5) provision of oral and written consent. One hundred participants were excluded based on the following criteria: 1) history of head injury, 2) lack of parental consent for those under 18, 3) patterned responses across questionnaire items, 4) recent or current use of psychotropic medications, 5) history of smoking or criminal behaviour, 6) residing in university dormitories, and 7) being teachers or graduates. Although G*Power 3.1 was developed by Franz Faul, Kiel University, it suggested a sample size of 138. However, a total of 300 participants were ultimately included in the study (Figure 2).
The University of Malakand Ethical Committee approved the study protocol (approval no: UOM/PSY/2456), and the study adhered to the Declaration of Helsinki. Informed consent was obtained from all participants.
Demographic characteristics
A cross-sectional design was used. Expert psychologists collected demographic data—including age, gender, family living status, smoking history, criminal records, and educational level—through a structured questionnaire.
Measurements
FQoL
The Beach Centre Family Quality of Life Scale [30], adapted by [31], assesses well-being and satisfaction within familial contexts. The 25-item scale, measured on a 5-point scale (1=very satisfied to 5=very dissatisfied), spans five domains: FiC, Par, EWB, PMW, and DRS. The total score range is 25-125. FQoL dives into critical aspects of family life, providing a nuanced understanding of the multifaceted nature of family satisfaction and functioning [31]. It demonstrates satisfactory reliability (α=0.73 to 0.85).
Depression, Anxiety, and Stress Scale-21
The Depression, Anxiety, and Stress Scale-21 (DASS-21), developed by Lovibond and Lovibond [32], assesses symptomatology of depression, anxiety, and stress across three domains with seven items each, measured on a 5-point (0=did not apply to me at all to 4=applied to me very much/most of the time). DASS-21 allows researchers and clinicians to gain insight into individuals’ complicated symptoms of all subscales. Subscale scores range from 0-28, with reliabilities of depression α=0.82, anxiety α=0.73, and stress α=0.77.
Goal Achievement Questionnaire
The Goal Achievement Questionnaire (GAQ), adapted by Midgley [33], assesses two goal orientations: mastery (GA-M: assessing individuals’ mastering tasks, competence, and acquiring knowledge) and performance approach (GA-P: motivation to perform and receive recognition). The mastery goal subscale contains eight items, while the performance-approach subscale contains seven, each measured on a 5-point scale (1=strongly disagree to 5=strongly agree). Reliability for GA-M and GA-P is 0.74 and 0.84, respectively.
Data analysis
Data were first cleaned to remove outliers. A normality test, the Shapiro-Wilk & Kolmogorov-Smirnov test was conducted, and log transformation was applied where necessary. Descriptive statistics were calculated for demographic and main study variables (DASS-21, GA-M, GA-P, FiC, Par, EWB, and DRS). Pearson’s correlation analysis was used for symmetrical variables. For gender differences, an independent samples t-test was used with key variables, using SPSS version 29 (IBM Corp.). Structural equation modeling (SEM) was conducted via Mplus version 8 (Muthén & Muthén) to assess the mediating role of psychological distress between the FQoL and goal achievement (GA-M and GA-P) with model fit indices are as follows: Model fit indices: ratio of chi-square to ×2/df, CFI≥0.95, GFI≥0.95, SRMR≤0.05, RMSEA≤0.06, TLI, AIC, BIC, and ABIC lowest values [34].
RESULTS
Descriptive statistics, correlation, and reliability coefficient among study variables
Table 1 presents all study variables’ descriptive statistics, correlation matrix, and reliability coefficients. All variables demonstrated strong psychometric properties, with Cronbach’s alpha coefficients ranging from 0.73 to 0.85, exceeding the recommended reliability threshold.
The correlation matrix revealed that the mastery goal (GA-M) was positively correlated with the performance-approach goal (GA-P; r=0.25, p<0.01) and anxiety (r=0.15, p<0.01). Conversely, GA-M was negatively associated with depression (r=-0.18, p<0.01), stress (r=-0.15, p<0.01), FiC (r=-0.14, p<0.05), and Par (r=-0.12, p<0.05). GA-P showed positive associations with depression (r=0.16, p<0.01), anxiety (r=0.21, p<0.01), and stress (r=0.18, p<0.01). Depression was positively correlated with FiC (r=0.22, p<0.01), Par (r=0.19, p<0.01), and PMW (correlation range: r=0.11, p<0.01). GA-M displayed a negative relationship with FiC and Par, suggesting that students with a mastery orientation may experience lower levels of family engagement and parental support.
Gender differences in goal achievement, psychological distress, and quality of family life
Table 2 indicates that women scored higher in GA-P than men, t(298)=-3.41, p=0.001, suggesting that women are more likely to focus on performance-oriented goals than goal mastery. While women also had a slightly higher mean score in GA-M than men, this difference was insignificant. Conversely, men reported significantly higher PMW than women, t(298)=2.35, p=0.019, indicating a greater sense of material well-being within their families. No significant gender differences were found for other variables, including depression, anxiety, stress, FiC, Par, EWB, and DRS.
Structural equation model
Table 3 presents the results of the SEM, which examined the mediating role of psychological distress—specifically anxiety, depression, and stress—on GA-M and GA-P. The findings indicate that anxiety (Model 1, Figure 3) had a significant direct effect on GA-P (β=-0.181, p<0.05), suggesting that higher psychological distress predicts greater anxiety, which in turn negatively influences mastery-oriented goal achievement. However, anxiety did not mediate this relationship. Depression (Model 2, Figure 4) significantly mediated the relationship between FQoL and GA-M (β=-0.033, p<0.05), as well as between FQoL and GA-P (β=0.032, marginally significant at p=0.055). These findings suggest that harsh and unsupportive family environments may negatively impact children’s goal achievement. In Model 3 (Figure 5), FQoL significantly predicted anxiety, and anxiety directly influenced both GA-M and GA-P. However, anxiety did not serve as a mediator in this relationship. Regarding stress (Model 4, Figure 6) both GA-M and GA-P were significantly mediated. FQoL indirectly influenced GA-M (β=-0.031, p<0.05) and GA-P (β=0.040, p<0.05), suggesting that moderate stress levels play a crucial role in shaping students’ goal achievement behaviors. Notably, no significant indirect effects were observed in the combined model (Model 1, Figure 3).
DISCUSSION
This study examined the impact of FQoL on academic goal attainment (mastery and performance), focusing on psychological distress as a mediating factor among late adolescents and young adults in the Malakand region. This study fills a crucial gap in the literature, as there is a limited understanding of how family dynamics and psychological distress influence goal attainment in the Pashtun cultural and regional context. Our findings are significant: 1) association of FQoL with goals achievement mastery, 2) GA-M with psychological distress, 3) GA-P positively associated with psychological distress, 4) FQoL (FiC, Par, EWB) linked to depression, 5) woman students more likely to focus on GA-P and then GA-M, while not in the case of man students, and 6) depression and stress played mediating role between FQoL and goal achievement.
Association of FQoL with goal achievement
FQoL was noticeably associated with GA-M, suggesting that family support, constructive family relationships, and EWB contribute positively to students’ internal motivation and goal mastery. Supportive family environments boost autonomy and competence, essential for mastery-focused goals. This finding is consistent with prior studies showing that those parents who establish a secure bond with children foster children’s self-regulation, self-compassion, and long-term goal orientation [4,5,35]. At the same time, unfriendly families lead to psychological distress and difficulty in goal attainment. These results may be associated with culture, which unites families in a joint system, where both parents support their children to achieve goals that they have set for themselves in the present culture and society. However, in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa (KP), religion has a stronger inspiration; thus, culturally, men have a sophisticated position and more accountability than women [34].
Association of goal achievement and psychological distress
Previous studies revealed that goal mastery achievement is adversely associated with psychological distress, including anxiety and depression. Students who focus on mastery-oriented goals appear to experience less psychological distress, likely due to the self-motivation, competence, and self-confidence fostered by constructive family environments. These findings align with prior research indicating that mastery-oriented goals can buffer against stress and anxiety, as students with mastery goals prioritize learning and personal growth over external validation [16]. In the present study, this effect is evident among man students, which cultural norms may influence. In some cultures, man children are often encouraged with affirmations like “You are strong” or “This is your responsibility,” which nurture resilience and emphasize self-improvement. In contrast, woman students may receive feedback centered on grades or domestic responsibilities, reinforcing a focus on performance goals rather than mastery. As a result, cultural expectations may shape distinct goal orientations, with men emphasizing personal growth while women prioritizing achievement based on external outcomes.
GA-P and psychological distress
The current study found that GA-P was positively associated with psychological distress, including stress and anxiety. This is in agreement with prior findings indicating that performance-oriented goals are often associated with intensified anxiety and stress, especially in competitive or authoritarian family environments [36]. Unachieved performance goals have also been associated with reduced FQoL [6,9], Students emphasizing performance-based goals may experience heightened psychological distress due to an emphasis on external validation and societal demands. The pressure to meet these goals can contribute to a cycle of stress and depressive symptoms, particularly when parental or societal demands exceed the student’s capacities, thereby diminishing FQoL [16]. FQoL encompasses mutual respect between family members, alongside consideration of individual capabilities, and tends to be higher in families with authoritative parenting approaches. Such approaches foster a supportive environment that enhances internal motivation and psychological well-being, thereby improving FQoL [15]. The present findings suggest that promoting a balanced approach to parenting that emphasizes mastery-oriented goals over performance-based pressures may mitigate psychological distress and improve FQoL.
FQoL and psychological distress
Our findings highlighted the significance of the relationship between FQoL components—including FiC, Par, EWB, and PMW—and psychological distress levels among students. Students who perceived low FQoL, especially those from families with controlling or highly demanding dynamics, reported heightened depressive symptoms. This aligns with the hypothesis that limited supportive FiCs increase the risk of psychological distress [18]. Previous research has highlighted the vital role of family emotional support in decreasing depressive symptoms, fostering resilience [11,37], and enhancing goal-attainment abilities [15]. The present study further highlights the importance of a supportive family environment for goal achievement, both in mastery-oriented (GA-M) and performance-oriented goals (GA-P). A supportive family environment empowers young adults to pursue their goals [29,36], and cultivates a sense of certainty [16]. Also, fostering children’s internal motivation within their cultural dynamics contributes to their goal-setting and attainment capabilities. This study emphasizes the role of a nurturing family environment in bolstering both psychological well-being and goal-directed behavior among students.
Mediating role of psychological distress between FQoL and goal achievement
The findings revealed that psychological distress, particularly depression and stress, mediates the relationship between FQoL and goal achievement. Depression and stress negatively impact mastery-oriented goal achievement, suggesting that an unsupportive family environment may impair goal attainment by reducing emotional regulation and future-oriented thinking [4,6,7,23,25]. Additionally, stress positively influences goals-oriented performance (GA-P). Simultaneously, depression has a marginal effect, indicating that moderate stress may enhance performance-driven goals but simultaneously, hinder the development of mastery-oriented goals [16]. These findings can be attributed to the parental raring styles, with less support and high expectations.
A supportive family environment may alleviate stress, fostering students’ ability to achieve mastery goals, whereas families with high expectations, but limited emotional support may elevate stress levels, ultimately impairing goal achievement. These findings are consistent with prior studies highlighting that depression and stress diminish motivation and cognitive functioning, thereby obstructing goal pursuit [17,18,24].
Limitations
This study has several limitations. Firstly, the cross-sectional design limits the ability to establish a causal relationship between FQoL and student goal achievement, highlighting the need for rigorously planned longitudinal cohort studies. Secondly, the sample consisted exclusively of university students, which may restrict the generalizability of the findings. Thirdly, while we assessed the FQoL concerning parenting practices, we did not use a standardized measure such as the “Parenting Style Questionnaire.” [38] Future research should explore the influence of parental acceptance and parenting styles on goal achievement and well-being in a larger, more diverse sample. Finally, family practices were defined based on the student’s perceptions, which may have influenced the results; further studies should include assessments from both students and parents to provide a more comprehensive view.
Conclusions
In summary, this study underscores the significant role of FQoL in influencing academic goal attainment through its impact on psychological distress among students in Malakand, KP. The findings highlight the importance of family-centered interventions to enhance EWB and academic achievement in adolescents and young adults. Strengthening FiCs may help alleviate psychological distress and promote academic success.
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